CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF
LITERATURE
A.
Theoretical
Framework
In
conducting a research, theories are needed to explain some related concepts or
terms apply in the research concern. Some concepts and terms are used in this
study and they are needed to be theoretically explained to avoid
misunderstanding. The terms which are used, have to be clarified in order to
have the same perspective of implementation in the field. The theoretical
explanation and elaboration on the concepts and terms used will be presented in
the followings.
1.
Students’
Achievement
The word ‘achievement’ derives from a
verb ‘achieve’ which means: (1) gain or reach something by effort, (2) get
something done. (Oxford Pocket Learners’ Dictionary, 2008:95). Hornby
(2000:11) defines “achievement” as (1) a thing that somebody has done
successfully, especially using his own effort and skill (2) the act or process
of achieveing something. Therefore, students’ achievement is a thing done
successfully by students with their efforts and skills.
Bloom (1956)
identified three domains of educational activities, that are cognitive,
affective and psychomotor. The
cognitive domain involves knowledge and the development of intellectual skills.
This includes the recall or recognition of specific facts, procedural patterns,
and concepts that serve in
the
development of intellectual abilities and skills. The affective domain includes
the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as feelings, values,
appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes. Psychomotor
is the skill to do something, ready to do it based on physic and emotion,
self-control and become a habit. Achievement covers cognitive, affective, and
psychomotorist. (http://www.nwlink.com)
Writing
as one of the four language skills taught in school also holds the important
role in learning English in which students are supposed to be able to write a
text and achieve good mark on it. Student achievement is viewed as examining in terms of whether
they mastered or attained course learning objectives. Teacher
gets the achievement of the students based on cognition, affection and
psychomotor. In this study, writing concerns with the affective aspect. The
achievement on writing is based on the affective skill of the students, using
their responds to create or write something decent.
2.
Writing
The terms of writing have several meanings. Many
experts have proposed the definition and explanation of writing. Widdowson
(1978:62) states that writing is the act of making up correct sentences and
transmiting them through the visual medium as mark on papaer. It is also a product of a person’s
search for meaning.
Hyland
(2002:1) states that writing has been a central topic in applied linguistics.
It is central to our personal experience and social identities, and we are
often evaluated by our control of it. Brown (2001) in http://en.wikipedia.org
describes that writing is a process of putting ideas down on a paper to
transform thoughts into words, to sharpen main ideas, and to give them
structures and coherent organization. So, writing is a process of transforming
ideas or thoughts which is contextually acceptable.
Writing
is one of important skills to be learnt in the language classroom for the academic
and occupational purposes. The students need to be able to write effectively to
complete their assignments or exams that require them to write short answers or
longer essays as a way of assessing what they have learnt. These activities
should be preceded, accompanied and follow by the action of writing. Since writing
represents a mean to learn and reinforce skills, students must know and realize
that the ability to write is crucial in their process of language learning, and
that they will be more effective writers once. They comprehend that writing is
a process, and as a process it has stages that can be identified and elements
that can be learned. Thus, the instructor’s role is to provide the learners
with techniques, materials, activities, and tasks necessary to understand those
stages of the writing process and opportunities to engage
actively in this process.
a.
Writing Process
According to Harmer (2004:4), there are
four elements in writing process, they are:
1)
Planning
It is the first step in
writing in which the writers plan what they are going to write. In this
process, the writer have to think about three main issues, they are purpose,
audience, and content structure. In the first place the writers have to
consider the purpose of their writing since this will influence the type of
text they wish to produce, the language they will use, and the information they
choose to include. Secondly, the audience the writer are writing for, since
this will not only influence the shape of the writing (how it is laid out, how
the paragraphs are structured, etc), but also the choice of language whether it
is formal or informal language. Thirdly, content structure of the piece, that
is how best sequence the facts, ideas, or arguments which the writers decided
to include.
2)
Drafting
It is the way of the writer puts down
his or her ideas into words. Drafting is often done on the assumption that a
text will be amended later. As the writing process proceeds into editing, a
number of drafts may be produced on the way to the final version.
3)
Editing (Reflecting and Revising)
It involves correcting the mistakes in the
writting. Reflecting and revising are often helped by other readers (editors)
who comment and make suggestion. It will help the author to make appropriate
revisions.
4)
Final version
In this final process, the writers have
edited their draft, making the changes they consider to be necessary, they
produce their final version. This may look considerably different from the
original plan and the first draft, because things have been changed in the
editing process. The final version is ready to send the written text to its
intended reader.
b.
Types
of Writing
Brown
(2004:220) explains types of writing. There are four categories of written
performance that capture the range of written production are typically
identified as follows.
1)
Imitative
Imitative means to produce written language,
the learner must attain skills in the fundamental basic tasks of writing
letters, words, punctuation, and very brief sentences. It is a level at which
learners are trying to master the mechanics of writing. At this stage, form is
the primary if not exclusive focus, while context and meaning are secondary
concern.
2)
Intensive
Beyond
the fundamentals of imitative writing are skills in producing appropriate
vocabulary within a context, collocations, idioms and correct grammatical
features up to the length of a sentence. Meaning and context are some of
importance in determining correctness and appropriateness, but most assessment
tasks are more concerned with a focus on form.
3)
Responsive
Here,
assessment tasks require learners to perform at a limited discourse level,
connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically connected
sequence of two or three paragraphs. Form focused attention is mostly at the
discourse level with a strong emphasis on context and meaning.
4)
Extensive
It implies successful management of all
the process and strategies of writing for all purposes. Writers focus on
achieving a purpose, organizing and developing ideas logically, engaging in the
process of multiple drafts to achieve a final product.
Since
writing is a process of transferring ideas or thoughts which are transformed
into written form which is contextually acceptable, difficulties are often
faced by students. Teacher’s roles both to develop their own ideas and to facilitate
them in conducting the steps of writing process are intended to ease students
act in writing some writing performance such the types of writing explained
above. Because the sample is senior high school students so it is hoped that
they can write a text in the extensive category.
3.
Genres
of Writing
The word genre comes from the French (and
originally Latin) word for 'kind' or 'class'. The term is widely used in
rhetoric, literary theory, media theory, and more recently linguistics, to
refer to a distinctive type of text. (http://en.wikipedia.org)
Hyland
(2002:17) states genres thus provide us with resources for getting things done
in all areas of life. Teaching genres involves increasing learners’ awareness
of the conventions of writing help them produce texts that seem well-formed and
appropriate to readers. Texts are similar or different because of the
sociocultural purposes they are intended to serve and the ways they are
structured to achieve these. Genre theories assume that the organization of a
text can be described in relation to others, and to the choices and constraints
acting on the writer in a particular social context.
As
students prepare to write, they need to think about the purpose of their
writing. Setting the purpose for writing is important because purpose
influences students’ decision to make about form. According to Educational Unit-Oriented Curriculum English
Subject syllabus of senior high school, it is stated some genres of writing to
be mastered by students, they are descriptive, narrative, recount, procedure, report,
news item, exposition, spoof, explanation, discussion and review. According to
Gerot and Wignel (1994:192), the use of the genres are:
a.
Spoof
is to retell an event with humorous twist
b.
Recount
is to retell events for the purpose of informing and entertaining
c.
Report
is to describe the way
things are, with reference to a range of natural, man- made, and social
phenomenon in our environment.
d.
Analytical exposition is to persuade the
reader or listener that something is the case.
e.
News item is to inform readers, listener or viewers about events of the day which are
considered newsworthy or important.
f.
Anecdote is to share with others an account for unusual or amusing incident.
g.
Narrative is to amuse,
entertain and to deal with actual or vicarious experience in different ways, it
deals with problematic events which lead to a crisis of turning points of some
kinds, which in turn find a resolution.
h.
Procedure is to describe how something is accomplished through a sequence
of action steps.
i.
Description is to describe a particular
person, place or things.
j.
Hortatory exposition is to persuade the reader or listener that something
should or should not be the case.
k.
Explanation is to explain the process involved in the formation or working
of natural or socio cultural phenomena
l.
Discussion is to present two points of view about issue.
m. Review is to critique an art of work or event for
public audience.
Every
genre has a number of characteristics and it has the specific purpose which
makes it different from other genres. In this study, it is only focused on
recount text.
4.
Recount
Text
Hyland (2002:99) states that Recounts
‘tell what happened’. The purpose of a recount text is to document a series of
events and evaluate their significance in some way and to tell a sequence of
events so that it entertains. So, recount text is a text that retells past
events, usually in the order in which they happened. The function of a recount
text is to inform or entertain the listeners or readers.
a.
Generic Structure
of Recount Text
A recount
text has a generic structure, having
three components (Gerot and Wignell, 1944:194):
1) Orientation
Orientation provides the setting and
introduces participants.
2) Events
Events tell what happened, in what
sequence.
3) Re-orientation
Re-orientation is the closure of events. It
is optional.
b.
Language
Features of Recount Text
1) Focusing on
specific participants
2) Using action
verb
3) Circumstances
of time and places
4) Using past
tense
5) Focusing on
temporal sequence
6) Using
adjectives
An example
of a recount text is presented below:
|
Title
|
Trip to Yogyakarta
|
|
Orientation
|
The
best
trip that I’ve ever taken was when I was at second grade in Senior High School. I went to Yogyakarta with all my school friends. My school held the trip. We went there by
tourism bus. We spent
three days there and went to tourism objects around Yogyakarta.
|
|
Events
|
First,
we went to a tourism
village, a small village near Yogyakarta; where we were divided into small groups consist of two
to four persons to stay in the villagers’
home. We learnt many traditional
art and culture such as how to make
batik, how to play gamelan
(karawatin), and how to cook traditional
food. The next day, we went uptown and check-in in a hotel that had reserved before. In the hotel, five to
six persons occupied a room. My
best friends and I were in the same room and at
night, we spent it by talking and
sharing about anything. In
Yogyakarta we went to many places.
We went
to Borobudur, shop in Malioboro, see the sunset from the rubble of an old temple that placed on the top of a hill (I forget
the name of the temple), watch the
Rama Sinta play in Prambanan (which is really a fascinating
performance and play) and the most favorite part was that we got to eat at seafood restaurant that located above the pond
where we could eat a big delicious fresh
lobster.
|
|
Re-orientation
|
I
have to say it was a great
holiday. So many great new experiences I got, and it enables me to know one of many Indonesian tribe
cultures better. And also makes me get closer to my friends and know them better.
|
|
Language Features:
a)
Focusing on specific
participants (in bold)
b)
Using action verbs
(in italics)
c)
Circumstances of time
and place (underlined)
d)
Using past tense (in
bold and italics)
e)
Focusing on temporal
sequence (in italics and underlined)
f)
Using adjective (in
bold, italics and underlined)
|
|
5.
Peer
Review Technique
Brown (2001:14) states that technique is a variety
of exercises, activities or devices used in language classroom for realizing
lesson objective. There are many techniques that can be
applied in teaching English writing, one of them is Peer Review technique. Peer
review technique refers to the many ways in which students can share their
creative work with peers for constructive feedback and then use this feedback
to revise and improve their work. Peer review, in the academic sense,
refers to the process of having classmates read each other's works to make
edits and suggestions with the helps from a teacher. (http://www.ehow.com). In this case, teacher encourages students to give
comments or suggestions and corrections to their friend’s work.
Chiu et al
(2007) in their journal state in the process of reviewing and rewriting
composition drafts, feedback is an essential element of process-oriented
writing instruction. By means of the feedback teachers or peers provide,
revision is facilitated, leading to the evolution of new ideas, the
clarification of meanings and the enhancement of proficient writing. Students
can learn how to improve drafts appropriately and enhance the overall quality
of their writing. Feedback given by fellow student readers is called peer
review. In peer review, students generate productive feedback to help each
other revise their writing. Furthermore, peer review facilitates the writing
process by assisting students to identify the strengths and weaknesses of their
writing, to monitor the writing process and to develop reader awareness. Some
students may also be able to learn to evaluate writing critically. In addition,
it helps the writers to reshape and develop their ideas from alternative
viewpoints presented through discussion with peers, a social behaviour of interaction
and negotiation which may serve to scaffold cognitive construction.
(http://independentlearning.org).
According
to Hyland (2002:135), peer conferencing can benefit both writers and readers by
expanding students’ sense of audience for their papers beyond the teacher,
developing a greater concern for appropriate genre conventions and reader
expectations. In this class, reviews are conducted using the respond. Respond
is a revision which allows students to read peer drafts and then steers them
through an evaluative process.
Reid
(1993:156) states that writing is usually easier, better, and more successful
when talking, revising, and editing together in the groups that are part of the
writing process. In this study, revising and editing done in pairs.
a.
The
procedure of Peer review Technique
There are 5
steps in applying peer review technique in classroom, as follows:
1)
Students are assigned a
writing task to be reviewed for next meeting
2)
Students are divided in
pairs
3)
Students exchange
their paper with pair and read it silently
4)
Responding the paper in writing by giving
comments and revision on pair’s writing by filling up peer review feedback sheet
during peer review session
5)
Delving further by
asking questions of their pair reviewer
6)
Re-writing the final
draft based on the revisions and comments given by pair as needed.
b.
The
Advantages of Peer Review Technique
The advantages of peer review
technique are:
1) Students
have opportunities to share their opinions and reflect their thoughts on their
friend’s work
2) Students
may be motivated to write more carefully and clearly when they know their work
is going to be read and evaluated by their friend
3) Having
students peer review each other’s work and then make corrections based on
valuable inputs benefits the writer as well as the reviewer. This can help to greatly strengthen their writing and encourage
students to think critically.
By using peer
review technique, students’ curiosity for searching solutions to the problem
will be sparked, engaging the students in active learning that will help
develop their understanding and appreciation of diverse point of views. It also
requires students to use complex reasoning and critical thinking skills. It
creats more active and meaningful teaching learning process.
B.
Conceptual
Framework
Writing
is a process of transferring thoughts or ideas into words for a purpose. As one
of language skills that students are intended to master, it was found that
writing is difficult. It is because the students have to organize their thoughts or ideas and
then write them in appropriate ways to produce qualified writing. Moreover,
writing is also influenced by some elements such as vocabulary, grammar,
organization, punctuation, and spelling. In teaching English, there are some
genres in writing. One of them is recount text. Recount text is a kind of text
that retells some events in the past for certain purposes; to
inform or to entertain the listeners or readers.
For
the writing process, revision is as important as drafting. Peer review technique
is an essential part of the writing process. It is utilized between the
drafting and revision stages, considering the process of writing involves four
elements: planning, drafting, editing, and final version. By peer review technique, students work in
pairs to give comment or suggestion, revisions and discuss the feedback given
by peer before the writing (final draft) handed in to the teacher. The peer
review feedback sheet is also given to the students to make them easily give
comments, suggestion and revisions to their pair’s work.
Peer
Review technique is a technique that also makes teaching learning process
become active. Therefore, this technique is regarded as an appropriate way to
improve the students’ achievement in writing recount texts. By working in
pairs, the students will be motivated to learn by themselves, share their idea,
and practice their critical thinkings.
By
applying peer review technique, the students will much more attention to
correct errors for their own writing that can improve the quality of their
writing. Therefore, it is needed to apply peer review technique to improve the
students’ achievement in writing recount text.